Changing patterns of individualism and collectivism in the United States and Japan

We argue that culture is not a rigid or static entity. Instead, it is dynamic, in constant flux across individuals within cultures, and across time. In this article, we use the dimension of individualism vs collectivism (IC) as a specific and limited aspect of culture, within and between the United States and Japan, to highlight this notion. We analyze briefly social changes in the United States and Japan to suggest the changing nature of this dimension in both cultures. We re-present data reported elsewhere (Matsumoto, Brown, Preston, & Weissman, 1993; Matsumoto, Weissman, Preston, Brown, & Kupperbusch, 1994) that challenge our stereotypic notions of IC in the American and Japanese cultures. We discuss previous data on subgroup cultural differences within an American sample. In Study 1, we reanalyze data from this previous study using unconventional techniques to examine within-individual and within-culture variability on IC. In Study 2, we report new data from a second sample of Japanese individuals that are considerably different from previous data, further highlighting the dynamic nature of culture within an ethnically and racially homogeneous group; and we replicate the unconventional analyses reported in Study 1. Finally, we discuss the empirical and theoretical implications of culture as a dynamic and fluid, not fixed, entity.