Immune activation driven by CTLA-4 blockade augments viral replication at mucosal sites in simian immunodeficiency virus infection

The importance of chronic immune activation in progression to AIDS has been inferred by correlative studies in HIV-infected individuals and in nonhuman primate models of SIV infection. Using the SIVmac251 macaque model, we directly address the impact of immune activation by inhibiting CTLA-4, an immunoregulatory molecule expressed on activated T cells and a subset of regulatory T cells. We found that CTLA-4 blockade significantly increased T cell activation and viral replication in primary SIVmac251 infection, particularly at mucosal sites, and increased IDO expression and activity. Accordingly, protracted treatment with anti-CTLA-4 Ab of macaques chronically infected with SIVmac251 decreased responsiveness to antiretroviral therapy and abrogated the ability of therapeutic T cell vaccines to decrease viral set point. These data provide the first direct evidence that immune activation drives viral replication, and suggest caution in the use of therapeutic approaches for HIV infection in vivo that increase CD4(+) T cell proliferation.