Physically based global downscaling: Regional evaluation

The climate simulated by a global atmosphere-land model with a physically based subgrid orography scheme is evaluated in 10 selected regions. Climate variables simulated for each of multiple elevation classes within each grid cell are mapped according to a high-resolution distribution of surface elevation in each region. Comparison of the simulated annual mean climate with gridded observations leads to the following conclusions. At low to moderate elevations the downscaling scheme correctly simulates increasing precipitation, decreasing temperature, and increasing snow with increasing elevation across distances smaller than 100 km. At high elevations the downscaling scheme correctly simulates decreasing precipitation with increasing elevation. The rain shadow of many mountain ranges is poorly resolved, with too little precipitation simulated on the windward side of mountain ranges and too much on the lee side. The simulated sensitivity of surface air temperature to surface elevation is too strong, particularly in valleys influenced by drainage circulations. Observations show little evidence of a "snow shadow," so the neglect of the subgrid rain shadow does not produce an unrealistic simulation of the snow distribution. Summertime snow area, which is a proxy for land ice, is much larger than observed, mostly because of excessive snowfall but in some places because of a cold bias. Summertime snow water equivalent is far less than the observed thickness of glaciers because a 1-m upper bound on snow water is applied to the simulations and because snow transport by slides is neglected. The 1-m upper bound on snow water equivalent also causes an underestimate of seasonal snow Water during late winter, compared with gridded station measurements. Potential solutions to these problems are discussed.