The adhesive strategies of cyprids and development of barnacle-resistant marine coatings

Over the last decade, approaches to the development of surfaces that perturb settlement and/or adhesion by barnacles have diversified substantially. Although, previously, coatings research focussed almost exclusively on biocidal technologies and low modulus, low surface-free-energy 'fouling-release' materials, novel strategies to control surface colonisation are now receiving significant attention. It is timely, therefore, to review the current 'state of knowledge' regarding fouling-resistant surface characteristics and their mechanisms of action against settling larvae of barnacles. The role of the barnacle in marine fouling is discussed here in the context of its life cycle and the behavioural ecology of its cypris larva. The temporary and permanent adhesion mechanisms of cyprids are covered in detail and an overview of adult barnacle adhesion is presented. Recent legislation has directed academic research firmly towards environmentally inert marine coatings, so the actions of traditional biocides on barnacles are not described here. Instead, the discussion is restricted to those surface modifications that interfere with settlement-site selection and adhesion of barnacle cypris larvae; specifically, textural engineering of surfaces, development of inert 'non-fouling' surfaces and the use of enzymes in antifouling.