Ultrastructure of attachment specializations of hexapods, (Arthropoda): evolutionary patterns inferred from a revised ordinal phylogeny

Attachment devices of representatives of most higher taxa of hexapods were examined. Short descriptions of tibial, tarsal and pretarsal adhesive structures for each order are presented. In their evolution, hexapods have developed two distinctly different mechanisms to attach themselves to a variety of substrates hairy surfaces and smooth flexible pads. The flexible properties of pad material guarantees a maximal contact with surfaces, regardless of the microsculpture, These highly specialized structures are not restricted to one particular area of the leg. They may be located on different parts, such as claws, derivatives of the pretarsus, tarsal apex. tarsomeres, or tibia. The 10 characters of the two alternative designs of attachment devices - Smooth and hairy were coded and analysed together with a data matrix containing 105 additional morphological characters of different,,(ages and body parts. The analysis demonstrates, that similar structures (arolium, euplatitulae, hairy tarsomeres) have evolved independently in several lineages. Nevertheless, some of them support monophyletic groups (e.g. Embioptera + Dermaptera Dictyoptera + Phasmatodea + Grylloblattodea + Orthoptera Dictyoptera + Phasmatodea; Hymenoptera + Mecopterida; Neuropterida + Strepsiptera + Coleoptera). Other structures such as claw pads (Epemeroptera), balloon-shaped eversible pads (Thysanoptera), or fossulae spongiosae (Reduviidae) are unique for larger or smaller monophyletic units. It is plausible to assume that the evolution of flight and the correlated necessity to cling to vegetation or other substrates was a major trigger for the evolution of adhesive structures, Groups with a potential to evolve a great variety of designs of adhesive pads are Hemiptera and Diptera. Even though characters of the adhesive pads are strongly subject to selection, they can provide phylogenetic information. The results of the cladistic analyses are largely congruent with current hypotheses of hexapod phylogeny. A sistergroup relationship between Diplura and Insecta and between Zygentoma (excl. Tricholepidion) and Pterygota is confirmed. Plecoptera are probably the sistergroup of the remaining Neoptera. Dermaptera are the sistergroup of Embioptera and Dictyoptera the sistergroup of Phasmatodea. Paurometabola excl. Dermaptera + Embioptera are monophyletic. A sistergroup relationship between Zoraptera and a clade comprising Paraneoptera + Endopterygota is only supported by weak evidence. Coleoptera - Strepsiptera are the sistergroup of Neuropterida and Hymenoptera the sistergroup of Mecopterida.