Application of a Receptor-Binding Capture Quantitative Reverse Transcription-PCR Assay To Concentrate Human Norovirus from Sewage and To Study the Distribution and Stability of the Virus

Water is an important route for human norovirus (HuNoV) transmission. Using magnetic beads conjugated with blood group-like antigens (HuNoV receptors), we developed a simple and rapid receptor-binding capture and magnetic sequestration (RBCMS) method and compared it to the existing negatively charged membrane absorption/elution (NCMAE) method for concentrating HuNoV from sewage effluent. RBCMS required 6-fold-less sample volume than the NCMAE method and also resulted in a significantly higher yield of HuNoV. The NCMAE and RBCMS concentrations of genogroup I (GI) HuNoV measured by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) resulted in average threshold cycle (C-T) values of 34.68 (8.68 copies, 252-fold concentration) versus 34.07 (13.05 copies, 477-fold concentration), respectively; the NCMAE and RBCMS concentrations of genogroup II (GII) HuNoV were measured as average C-T values of 33.32 (24.7 copies, 239-fold concentration) versus 32.38 (46.9 copies, 333-fold concentration), respectively. The specificity of qRT-PCR was confirmed by traditional RT-PCR and an RNase I protection assay. The qRT-PCR signal from RBCMS-concentrated HuNoV treated with RNase I indicated that it was from encapsidated RNA and, probably, viable virus. In contrast, the qRT-PCR signal from NCMAE-concentrated HuNoV was not protected from RNase I and, likely, degradation. Both GI and GII HuNoV were detected from sewage effluent samples collected between April and July with average concentrations of 7.8 x 10(3) genomic copies per liter (gc/liter) and 4.3 x 10(4) gc/liter, respectively. No GI and <2% GII HuNoV were detected in sewage samples stored at room temperature for 4 weeks. We conclude that RBCMS requires less sample volume, has better recovery and sensitivity, and is faster than NCMAE for detection of HuNoV in sewage.