Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions

The present research focuses on the emotional consequences of negative outcomes. Two types of negative outcomes are distinguished: The absence of a positive outcome and the presence of a negative outcome. It is argued that disappointment, because of its close link with hope, desire, and promise, is more associated with the absence of a positive outcome than with the presence of a negative outcome. Disappointment is also expected to be more associated with the absence of a positive outcome than related negative emotions, such as sadness, anger, frustration, and regret. The results of four studies, using different methodologies, confirm these predictions. In Study 1 and Study 2 participants recalled an autobiographical emotional episode, and appraisals concerning two different types of negative outcomes were assessed. In Study 3 a scenario methodology was used in which the type of negative outcome was experimentally manipulated and ratings for different emotions were assessed. Finally, in Study 4 on-line emotional reactions to the two different types of negative outcomes were assessed in an experiment in which real money could be won or lost. Implications for the study of disappointment are briefly discussed.