Alcohol consumption and smoking habits as determinants of blood lead levels in a national population sample from Germany

We investigated the influence of various lifestyle factors on blood lead levels in a representative sample from the general adult population (i.e., greater than or equal to 18 y of age) of West Germany in 1987-1988. The overall mean blood lead level was 73 mu g/l (standard deviation = 41.4 mu g/l) in 834 men and 54 mu g/l (standard deviation = 26.8 mu g/l) in 1 065 women. In a multiple linear regression analysis, alcohol consumption accounted for the largest proportion of variability in blood lead levels, followed by both age and smoking. Other significant contributing factors were gender, hematocrit, calcium intake, and consumption of milk and milk products. Wine had a greater effect on blood lead levels than beer (i.e., per g of alcohol consumed). With respect to cigarette smoking (i.e., no. of cigarettes smoked/d), filterless cigarettes were associated with higher blood lead levels than filter-tipped cigarettes. In addition, smoking cigars, cigarillos, or a pipe resulted in higher blood lead levels than smoking only cigarettes. Alcohol consumption and smoking were independent contributors to blood lead levels in both men and women, but effects of alcohol consumption were stronger in women than in men. We concluded that consumption of alcohol and tobacco represent major avoidable sources of lead exposure.