Steroid hormone interactions with target cells: Cross talk between membrane and nuclear pathways

The biological effects of steroid hormones are mediated by receptors associated with the plasma membrane as well as located inside of target cells. This perspective focuses on recent advances in our understanding of the integration that occurs between membrane-associated rapid signaling events and various changes in gene transcription that modulate the function and phenotype of steroid-responsive cells. Three frequently studied members of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily, the estrogen receptors, the thyroid hormone receptors, and the vitamin D receptors, are included to illustrate the emerging concepts. Each of these hormones has been conclusively shown to function at multiple subcellular sites leading to a continuum of signals intimately linked by intracellular cross talk. Understanding the molecular mechanisms by which these steroid hormones and their receptors transduce cellular signals will allow us to create new pharmacologic therapies aimed at treatment of a variety of human diseases affecting the cardiovascular system, the reproductive system, the skeletal system, the nervous system, the mammary gland, and many others.