Diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy

Diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy are arguably the two most dreaded complications of diabetes. Together they contribute to serious morbidity and mortality. As they progress to end-stage renal disease and blindness, they impose enormous medical, economic, and social costs on both the patient and the health care system. Because nephropathy and retinopathy are frequently linked in patients, this article reviews their common and individual aspects of pathophysiology, clinical features, and management.