Portfolios of control modes and IS project management

In spite of the attention it has received, there is still much that is not understood about the management of systems development efforts. This research examines one aspect of the management process: the function of control. In this paper, control is viewed broadly, encompassing all attempts to ensure individuals in organizations act in a manner that is consistent with meeting organizational goals and objectives. Control is categorized into formal modes (behavioral, outcome) and informal modes (dan, self). Formal and informal control modes are implemented via a variety of mechanisms, such as linking pay with performance, socialization, and team-building. Relatively little is known about the modes of control used to manage information systems development efforts. The objective of this research is to address this lack of understanding in the literature by exploring how control modes are implemented during systems development projects and by investigating why IS and user stakeholders implement particular combinations of control modes. To meet this objective, a series of four case studies of systems development projects was conducted. The results reveal that users, as well as IS managers, play a critical role in controlling systems development projects. Moreover, the results suggest that all stakeholders implement a portfolio of control modes that typically includes both formal and informal modes. This portfolio contains a mix of overlapping and redundant mechanisms used to exercise these modes of control. The results also suggest that constructing a portfolio of control modes is a process that includes selecting appropriate preexisting mechanisms of formal control; designing new mechanisms with which to implement formal control, if necessary; and supplementing the mechanisms of formal control with mechanisms of informal control. Throughout this process of construction the choice of particular control mechanisms depends on task characteristics, role expectations, and project-related knowledge and skills.