The environmental movement in an era of ecological modernisation

Ecological modernisation theory has become one of the dominant sociological theories that try to understand and interpret how modern industrial societies are dealing with the environmental crisis. To do this it focuses on changing social practices and institutional developments associated with environmental deterioration and reform. This article both profits from and contributes to this theoretical framework by analysing the transformations of the environmental movement, in particular non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Although the spectrum of environmental NGOs remains broad and different form country to country, some general transformations can be identified. In contrast to the environmental NGOs of the 1970s and early 1980s, contemporary NGOs differ in their dominant ideologies, in their position vis-g-vis other actors engaged with environmental deterioration and reform, and in their strategic operations between (and beyond) state and markets. These differences can be interpreted as an answer to wider developments in environmental discourses and reform, but at the same time result in new challenges for NGOs. This paper shows that although ecological modernisation theory offers no simple answers, and does not suggest logical trajectories that environmental NGOs can or will follow in their future development, it proves able to frame their windows of opportunity. At the same time the transformations in NGOs are seen to be an important part of the wider process of ecological modernisation. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.