Calculation of radiative fluxes from the surface to top of atmosphere based on ISCCP and other global data sets: Refinements of the radiative transfer model and the input data

We continue reconstructing Earth's radiation budget from global observations in as much detail as possible to allow diagnosis of the effects of cloud ( and surface and other atmospheric constituents) variations on it. This new study was undertaken to reduce the most noticeable systematic errors in our previous results ( flux data set calculated mainly using International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project-Cl input data (ISCCP-FC)) by exploiting the availability of a more advanced NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) radiative transfer model and improved ISCCP cloud climatology and ancillary data sets. The most important changes are the introduction of a better treatment of ice clouds, revision of the aerosol climatology, accounting for diurnal variations of surface skin/air temperatures and the cloud-radiative effects on them, revision of the water vapor profiles used, and refinement of the land surface albedos and emissivities. We also extend our previous flux results, limited to the top of atmosphere (TOA) and surface (SRF), to also include three levels within the atmosphere, forming one integrated vertical atmospheric flux profile from SRF to TOA, inclusive, by combining a new climatology of cloud vertical structure with the ISCCP cloud product. Using the new radiative transfer model and new input data sets, we have produced an 18-year at 3-hour time steps, global at 280-km intervals, radiative flux profile data set (called ISCCP-FD) that provides full- and clear-sky, shortwave and longwave, upwelling and downwelling fluxes at five levels ( SRF, 680 mbar, 440 mbar, 100 mbar, and TOA). Evaluation is still only possible for TOA and SRF fluxes: Comparisons of monthly, regional mean values from FD with Earth Radiation Budget Experiment, Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System and Baseline Surface Radiation Network values suggest that we have been able to reduce the overall uncertainties from 10-15 to 5-10 W/m(2) at TOA and from 20-25 to 10 15 W/m(2) at SRF. Annual mean pressure-latitude cross sections of the cloud effects on atmospheric net radiative fluxes show that clouds shift the longwave cooling downward in the Intertropical Convergence Zone, acting to stabilize the tropical atmosphere while increasing the horizontal heating gradient forcing the Hadley circulation, and shift the longwave cooling upward in the midlatitude storm zones, acting to destabilize the baroclinic zones while decreasing the horizontal heating gradient there.