Static forces, structure and flow properties of complex fluids in highly confined geometries

The Surface Forces Apparatus has been successfully used to measure the static and dynamic forces between surfaces across ultra-thin films of water and aqueous electrolyte solutions, and - more recently - polyelectrolyte-coated and articular cartilage surfaces in various solutions including hyaluronan, lubricin, and synovial fluid. The results give new insights into the lubricating action of biological lubricants such as synovial fluid and hyaluronan (a polysaccharide in synovial fluid), and biological surfaces such as phospholipid bilayers and cartilage surfaces. Contrary to earlier indications of long-range water-structuring at biological surfaces, more recent measurements clearly show that the viscosity of physiologically concentrated water (saline) is bulk-like beyond the first 1 or 2 layers from a single surface, and beyond 4 - 6 layers in thin films between two surfaces (the structure and forces may, however, be affected to larger distances). This implies that most structural, interaction force, and viscosity-related phenomena are determined - not only by the properties of the solvent (water) per se - but also by the surfaces and the water, ions, solutes, and macromolecules (proteins, polymers) exposed or adsorbed at the surfaces and, to a lesser degree, dissolved in the solvent. However, sometimes it is difficult to make a clear differentiation, e.g., one could consider hydration or surface-bound 'structured' water as part of the surface or as part of the intervening water between the two surfaces.