Multimodality imaging of endocrine immune related adverse events: a primer for radiologists

Immune-related endocrine adverse events occur in up to one third of patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of the multimodality imaging features of the different immune-related endocrine adverse events. In this article, we will introduce the different types of immune checkpoint inhibitors used in clinical practice, and for each endocrine organ affected we will describe the clinical presentation, the multimodality imaging features at presentation and after treatment, and the possible differential diagnosis.