Near-surface intensification of tornado vortices

An idealized analytical model and numerical large-eddy simulations are used to explore fluid-dynamic mechanisms by which tornadoes may be intensified near the surface relative to conditions aloft. The analytical model generalizes a simple model of Barcilon and Fiedler and Rotunno for a steady supercritical end-wall vortex to more general vortex corner flows, angular momentum distributions, and time dependence. The model illustrates the role played by the corner flow swirl ratio in determining corner flow structure and intensification; predicts an intensification of near-surface swirl velocities relative to conditions aloft of I-upsilon similar to 2 for supercritical end-wall vortices in agreement with earlier analytical, numerical, and laboratory results; and suggests how larger intensification factors might be achieved in some more general corner flows. Examples of the latter are presented using large-eddy simulations. By tuning the lateral inflow boundary conditions near the surface, quasi-steady vortices exhibiting nested inner and outer corner flows and I-upsilon similar to 4 are produced. More significantly, these features can be produced without fine tuning, along with an additional doubling (or more) of the intensification, in a broad class of unsteady evolutions producing a dynamic corner flow collapse. These scenarios, triggered purely by changes in the far-field near-surface flow, provide an attractive mechanism for naturally achieving an intense near-surface vortex from a much larger-scale less-intense swirling flow. It is argued that, applied on different scales, this may sometimes play a role in tornadogenesis and/or tornado variability. This phenomenon of corner flow collapse is considered further in a companion paper.