Speciation of PM10 sources of airborne nonferrous metals within the 3-km zone of lead/zinc smelters

The purpose of this study was to estimate the speciation of PM10 sources of airborne Pb, Zn, and Cd metals (PM10 is an aerosol standard of aerodynamic diameter less than 10 mum.) in the atmosphere of a 3 km zone surrounding lead/zinc facilities in operation for a century. Many powdered samples were collected in stacks of working units (grilling, furnace, and refinery), outdoor storages (ores, recycled materials), surrounding waste slag (4 Mt), and polluted topsoils (3 km). PM10 samples were generated from the raw powders by using artificial resuspension and collection devices. The bulk PM10 multielemental analyses were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). The proportions in mass of Pb (50%), Zn (40%), and Cd (1%) contents and associated metals (traces) reach the proportions of corresponding raw powdered samples of ores, recycled materials, and fume-size emissions of plants without specific enrichment. In contrast, Pb (8%) and Zn (15%) contents of PM10 of slag deposit were found to be markedly higher than those of raw dust, Pb (4%), and Zn (9%), respectively. In the same way, Pb (0.18%), Zn (0.20%), and Cd (0.004%) were enriched by 1.7, 2.1, and 2.3 times, respectively, in PM10 as compared with raw top-soil corresponding values. X-ray wavelength dispersive electron-microprobe (EM-WDS) microanalysis did not indicate well-defined phases or simple stoichiometries of all the PM10 samples at the level of the spatial resolution (1 mum(3)). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) indicated that minor elements such as Cd, Hg, and C are more concentrated on the particle surface than in the bulk of PM10 generated by the smelting processes. (XPS) provided also the average speciation of the surface of PM10; Pb is mainly represented as PbSO4, Zn as ZnS, and Cd as US or CdSO4, and small amounts of coke were also detected. The speciation of bulk PM10 crystallized compounds was deduced from XRD diffractograms with a raw estimation of the relative quantities. PbS and ZnS were found to be the major phases in PM10 generated by the smelting facilities with PbSO4, (PbSO4PbO)-Pb-., PbSO(4)(.)4PbO, Pb metal, and ZnO as minor phases. The slag waste PM10 was found to contain some amounts of PbCO3, (PbSO4PbO)-Pb-., and ZnFe2O4 phases. The large heterogeneity at the level of the individual particle generates severe overlap of chemical information even at the mum scale using electron microprobe (WDS) and Raman microprobe techniques. Fortunately, scanning Raman microspectrometry combined with SIMPle-to-use Interactive Self-modeling Mixture Analysis (SIMPLISMA) performed the PM10 speciation at the level of individual particles. The speciation of major Pb, Zn, and Cd compounds of PM10 stack emissions and wind blown dust of ores and recycled materials were found to be PbSO4, PbSO4. PbO, PbSO(4)(-)4PbO, PbO, metallic Pb, ZnS, ZnO, and CdS. The PM10 dust of slag waste was found to contain PbCO3, Pb-(OH)(2)(PbCO3)-Pb-., (PbSO4PbO)-Pb-., and ZnS, while PM10-bound Pb, Zn of the top-soils contain Pb-5(PO4)(3)Cl, ZnFe2O4 as well as Pb(II) and Zn(II) compounds adsorbed on Fe(III) oxides and in association with clays.