Anticipation in squash: Differences in advance cue utilization between expert and novice players

The time of occurrence and spatial location of the advance cues used to anticipate the direction and force of an opponent's stroke in squash were examined using a film task. This task, designed to simulate the normal perceptual display of the defensive player, consisted of two discrete parts, each containing 160 individual stroke sequences (trials). In the first part of the film task, the display was occluded at different time intervals throughout the development of the opponent's stroke and the 16 expert and 20 novice subjects had to predict both the direction (down-wall or cross-court) and force (drive or drop shot) of the opponent's stroke. In the second part of the film task, visibility to selected advance cues was occluded by placing opaque mats on the film surface. Across all of the film task conditions experts were superior to novices in predicting the event outcome from the information available, highlighting the important contribution anticipatory skills make to expert performance in this sport. Analysis of lateral (direction) error showed that the most critical time periods for extracting information about stroke direction are the periods between 160-80 ms prior to racket-ball contact and the period of extended ball flight arising at least 80 ms after contact. Whereas both groups were attuned to this ball flight information, only the experts were capable of picking up information from the early part of the opponent's actions. This early information appeared to be provided by the opposing player's arm action. Similar time periods were found to be also important for the prediction of stroke depth, but in this case both experts and novices were similar in their cue dependence.