Primer: making sense of T-cell memory

associated molecular patterns of invading organisms deliver signals to pattern -recognition receptors that activate the innate immune system. Ligation of the T-cell receptor by peptides bound to MHC antigens and presented by dendritic cells, together with signals produced by the activated innate immune system, initiate T-cell responses. The nature of the T-cell response, consisting of phases of clonal expansion and contraction, and differentiation to effector and memory cells, however, is determined both by the properties of the antigen and the co-stimuli produced by the innate immune system. Short-lived effector and longerlived memory T cells are generated during primary responses; after the death of most of the effectors, memory cells remain. Memory cells are heterogeneous in phenotype and function; subsets include the relatively quiescent central and more activated effector memory cells, as well as cells able to promote inflammation, help antibody production or regulate other immune responses. Understanding the properties of memory cells will help in the rational design of vaccines for 'difficult' organisms or cancer, as well as immunotherapies for autoimmune diseases.