Cooperation of Toll-like receptor signals in innate immune defence

The mechanisms by which the recognition of Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands leads to host immunity remain poorly defined. It is now thought that to induce an effective immune response, microorganisms must stimulate complex sets of pattern-recognition receptors, both within and outside of the TLR family. The combined activation of these different receptors can result in complementary, synergistic or antagonistic effects that modulate innate and adaptive immunity. Therefore, a complete understanding of the role of TLRs in host resistance to infection requires 'decoding' of these multiple receptor interactions. This Review highlights recent advances in the newly emerging field of TLR cooperation and discusses their implications for the development of adjuvants and immunotherapies.