Daphnia growth is hindered by chemical information on predation risk at high but not at low food levels

Daphnia hyalina x galeata (Dhg) and D. pulicaria (Dp) are ready to pay greater costs in terms of predation risk avoidance at high rather than at low food levels. Such costs are easier to assess in Daphnia than in large long-lived and difficult-to-handle herbivores, since they can be precisely determined in a few-day experiment as the reduced growth (P=A-R) resulting from diminished assimilation (A) and/or increased respiration (R). In experiments with Daphnia grown for six days from the neonate to the first clutch of eggs, which were given different levels of algal food (Scenedesmus at concentrations from 0.05 to 1.60 mg C l(-1)), individual growth was lower in the presence of fish kairomone (chemical information on fish predation; present at a concentration that induces antipredator defensive behavior and life histories) than in the absence of kairomone (control). The difference from the control was negligible at the lowest food levels, and gradually increased with increasing food concentration. At a food concentration of 1.6 mg C l(-1), growth was reduced by 9-32 and 0-8% in Dhg and Dp, respectively, compared to the controls. A similar reduction was observed in the body length of six-day-old animals (Dhg 6-19%, Dp 0-14%), but not in the first clutch reproductive effort (clutch volume). Daphnia had a greater number of eggs per clutch in the presence of the kairomone, but smaller eggs, so that the total volume of eggs in a clutch was the same with and without kairomone. The amplification of the effect of the kairomone due to high food levels was weaker in Dp, a species that rarely coexists with planktivorous fish in natural habitats.