T helper cell activation and human retroviral pathogenesis

T helper (Th) cells are of central importance in regulating many critical immune effector mechanisms. The profile of cytokines produced by Th cells correlates with the type of effector cells induced during the immune response to foreign antigen. Th1 cells induce the cell-mediated immune response, while Th2 cells drive antibody production. Th cells are the preferential targets of human retroviruses. Infections with human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV) or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) result in the expansion of Th cells by the action of HTLV (adult T-cell leukemia) or the progressive loss of T cells by the action of HIV (AIDS). Both retrovirus infections impart a high-level activation state in the host immune cells as well as systemically. However, diverging responses to this activation state have contrasting effects on the Th-cell population. In HIV infection, Th-cell loss has been attributed to several mechanisms, including a selective elimination of cells by apoptosis. The induction of apoptosis in HIV infection is complex, with many different pathways able to induce cell death. In contrast, infection of Th cells with HTLV-1 affords the cell a protective advantage against apoptosis. The advantage may allow the cell to escape immune surveillance, providing the opportunity for the development of Th-cell cancer. In this review, we will discuss the impact of Th-cell activation and general immune activation on human retrovirus expression with a focus upon Th-cell function and the progression to disease.