Low-bandwidth reflex-based control for lower power walking: 65 km on a single battery charge

No legged walking robot yet approaches the high reliability and the low power usage of a walking person, even on flat ground. Here we describe a simple robot which makes small progress towards that goal. Ranger is a knee-less four-legged bipedal' robot which is energetically and computationally autonomous, except for radio controlled steering. Ranger walked 65.2 km in 186,076 steps in about 31 h without being touched by a human with a total cost of transport [TCOT P/mgv ] of 0.28, similar to human's TCOT of approximate to 0.3. The high reliability and low energy use were achieved by: (a) development of an accurate bench-test-based simulation; (b) development of an intuitively tuned nominal trajectory based on simple locomotion models; and (c) offline design of a simple reflex-based (that is, event-driven discrete feed-forward) stabilizing controller. Further, once we replaced the intuitively tuned nominal trajectory with a trajectory found from numerical optimization, but still using event-based control, we could further reduce the TCOT to 0.19. At TCOT=0.19, the robot's total power of 11.5 W is used by sensors, processors and communications (45%), motor dissipation (approximate to 34%) and positive mechanical work (approximate to 21%). Ranger's reliability and low energy use suggests that simplified implementation of offline trajectory optimization, stabilized by a low-bandwidth reflex-based controller, might lead to the energy-effective reliable walking of more complex robots.