Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees' invidious reactions to promotees

We tested how promotion expectation and perceived self-similarity of a more successful comparison other predicted envy, and how envy, in turn, influenced social evaluations and job performance among candidates who were rejected for promotion. Promotion rejectees perceived the promotee from their work unit as being less likable than he or she was before being promoted. Promotion envy was highest among rejectees who had perceived the promotee as being more similar to themselves and who had previously had high promotion expectations. Envy influenced promotee likability both directly and indirectly through perceived reward injustice. Among rejectees who perceived high self-similarity with the promotee from their unit, promotion expectation had indirect effects on social evaluations and performance through envy. Envy appears to be a significant part of the process through which people attempt to maintain their self-images in the face of threat. We discuss both the positive and the negative consequences of social comparisons and their implications for justice research and theory, as well as practical implications for mitigating adverse reactions to ego-threatening events. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.