Constitutive activity of G-protein-coupled receptors: cause of disease and common property of wild-type receptors

The aim of this review is to provide a systematic overview on constitutively active G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), a rapidly evolving area in signal transduction research. We will discuss mechanisms, pharmacological tools and methodological approaches to analyze constitutive activity. The two-state model defines constitutive activity as the ability of a GPCR to undergo agonist-independent isomerization from an inactive (R) state to an active (R*) state. While the two-state model explains basic concepts of constitutive GPCR activity and inverse agonism, there is increasing evidence for multiple active GPCR conformations with distinct biological activities. As a result of constitutive GPCR activity, basal G-protein activity increases. Until now, constitutive activity has been observed for more than 60 wild-type GPCRs from the families 1-3 and from different species including humans and commonly used laboratory animal species. Additionally, several naturally occurring and disease-causing GPCR mutants with increased constitutive activity relative to wildtype GPCRs have been identified. Alternative splicing, RNA editing, polymorphisms within a given species, species variants and coupling to specific G-proteins all modulate the constitutive activity of GPCRs, providing multiple regulatory switches to fine-tune basal cellular activities. The most important pharmacological tools to analyze constitutive activity are inverse agonists and Na+ that stabilize the R state, and pertussis toxin that uncouples GPCRs from G(i)/G(o)-proteins. Constitutive activity is observed at low and high GPCR expression levels, in native systems and in recombinant systems, and has been reported for GPCRs coupled to G(s)-, G(i)- and G(q)-proteins. Constitutive activity of neurotransmitter GPCRs may provide a tonic support for basal neuronal activity. For the majority of GPCRs known to be constitutively active, inverse agonists have already been identified. Inverse agonists may be useful in the treatment of neuropsychiatric and cardiovascular diseases and of diseases caused by constitutively active GPCR mutants.