Semi-invasive and invasive procedures for the diagnosis and staging of lung cancer II - Bronchoscopic and surgical procedures

A variety of semi-invasive and invasive diagnostic procedures is available for the diagnosis and staging of lung cancer, including flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy, transthoracic percutaneous needle biopsy and various surgical procedures. An appropriate diagnostic strategy may be tailored for each clinical situation, depending on the size and location of the lesion, the presence of mediastinal lymphadenopathy and the availability of the different procedures. A review of the bronchoscopic and surgical procedures is presented, including indications, technique, yield, limitations, contraindications, and complications for each procedure.