Multiple strains per plant and root-to-root (not seed-borne) transmission should favor rhizobia that invest in their own reproduction, rather than symbiotic N-2 fixation, as analogous factors may favor pathogen virulence. But legumes can select for greater mutualism, controlling nodule O-2 supply and reducing reproduction of rhizobia that fix less N-2. (C) 2004 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.