Enhanced H2AX Phosphorylation, DNA Replication Fork Arrest, and Cell Death in the Absence of Chk1

H2AX phosphorylation at serine 139 (gamma H2AX) is a sensitive indicator of both DNA damage and DNA replication stress. Here we show that gamma H2AX formation is greatly enhanced in response to replication inhibitors but not ionizing radiation in HCT116 or SW480 cells depleted of Chk1. Although H2AX phosphorylation precedes the induction of apoptosis in such cells, our results suggest that cells containing gamma H2AX are not committed to death. gamma H2AX foci in these cells largely colocalize with RPA foci and their formation is dependent upon the essential replication helicase cofactor Cdc45, suggesting that H2AX phosphorylation occurs at sites of stalled forks. However Chk1-depleted cells released from replication inhibitors retain gamma H2AX foci and do not appear to resume replicative DNA synthesis. BrdU incorporation only occurs in a minority of Chk1-depleted cells containing gamma H2AX foci after release from thymidine arrest and, in cells incorporating BrdU, DNA synthesis does not occur at sites of gamma H2AX foci. Furthermore activated ATM and Chk2 persist in these cells. We propose that the gamma H2AX foci in Chk1-depleted cells may represent sites of persistent replication fork damage or abandonment that are unable to resume DNA synthesis but do not play a direct role in the Chk1 suppressed death pathway.